Impact of Globalisation on Developing Countries and India

Introduction:
Globalisation is the new buzzword that has come to dominate the world since the nineties of the last century with the end of the cold war and the break-up of the former Soviet Union and the global trend towards the rolling ball. The frontiers of the state with increased reliance on the market economy and renewed faith in the private capital and resources, a process of structural adjustment spurred by the studies and influences of the World Bank and other International organisations have started in many of the developing countries. Also Globalisation has brought in new opportunities to developing countries. Greater access to developed country markets and technology transfer hold out promise improved productivity and higher living standard. But globalisation has also thrown up new challenges like growing inequality across and within nations, volatility in financial market and environmental deteriorations. Another negative aspect of globalisation is that a great majority of developing countries remain removed from the process. Till the nineties the process of globalisation of the Indian economy was constrained by the barriers to trade and investment liberalisation of trade, investment and financial flows initiated in the nineties has progressively lowered the barriers to competition and hastened the pace of globalisation
Definition:
Globalised World - What does it mean?
Does it mean the fast movement of people which results in greater interaction?
Does it mean that because of IT revolution people can be in touch with each other in any part of the world?
Does it mean trade and economy of each country is open in Non-Intrusive way so that all varieties are available to consumer of his choice?
Does it mean that mankind has achieved emancipation to a level of where we can say it means a social, economic and political globalisation?
Though the precise definition of globalisation is still unavailable a few definitions worth viewing, Stephen Gill: defines globalisation as the reduction of transaction cost of transborder movements of capital and goods thus of factors of production and goods. Guy Brainbant: says that the process of globalisation not only includes opening up of world trade, development of advanced means of communication, internationalisation of financial markets, growing importance of MNC’s, population migrations and more generally increased mobility of persons, goods, capital, data and ideas but also infections, diseases and pollution
Impact on India:
India opened up the economy in the early nineties following a major crisis that led by a foreign exchange crunch that dragged the economy close to defaulting on loans. The response was a slew of Domestic and external sector policy measures partly prompted by the immediate needs and partly by the demand of the multilateral organisations. The new policy regime radically pushed forward in favour of amore open and market oriented economy.
Major measures initiated as a part of the liberalisation and globalisation strategy in the early nineties included scrapping of the industrial licensing regime, reduction in the number of areas reserved for the public sector, amendment of the monopolies and the restrictive trade practices act, start of the privatisation programme, reduction in tariff rates and change over to market determined exchange rates.
Over the years there has been a steady liberalisation of the current account transactions, more and more sectors opened up for foreign direct investments and portfolio investments facilitating entry of foreign investors in telecom, roads, ports, airports, insurance and other major sectors.
The Indian tariff rates reduced sharply over the decade from a weighted average of 72.5% in 1991-92 to 24.6 in 1996-97.Though tariff rates went up slowly in the late nineties it touched 35.1% in 2001-02. India is committed to reduced tariff rates. Peak tariff rates are to be reduced to be reduced to the minimum with a peak rate of 20%, in another 2 years most non-tariff barriers have been dismantled by march 2002, including almost all quantitative restrictions.
India is Global: The liberalisation of the domestic economy and the increasing integration of India with the global economy have helped step up GDP growth rates, which picked up from 5.6% in 1990-91 to a peak level of 77.8% in 1996-97. Growth rates have slowed down since the country has still bee able to achieve 5-6% growth rate in three of the last six years. Though growth rates has slumped to the lowest level 4.3% in 2002-03 mainly because of the worst droughts in two decades the growth rates are expected to go up close to 70% in 2003-04. A Global comparison shows that India is now the fastest growing just after China.
This is major improvement given that India is growth rate in the 1970’s was very low at 3% and GDP growth in countries like Brazil, Indonesia, Korea, and Mexico was more than twice that of India. Though India’s average annual growth rate almost doubled in the eighties to 5.9% it was still lower than the growth rate in China, Korea and Indonesia. The pick up in GDP growth has helped improve India’s global position. Consequently India’s position in the global economy has improved from the 8th position in 1991 to 4th place in 2001. When GDP is calculated on a purchasing power parity basis.
Globalisation and Poverty:
Globalisation in the form of increased integration though trade and investment is an important reason why much progress has been made in reducing poverty and global inequality over recent decades. But it is not the only reason for this often unrecognised progress, good national polices , sound institutions and domestic political stability also matter.
Despite this progress, poverty remains one of the most serious international challenges we face up to 1.2 billion of the developing world 4.8 billion people still live in extreme poverty.
But the proportion of the world population living in poverty has been steadily declining and since 1980 the absolute number of poor people has stopped rising and appears to have fallen in recent years despite strong population growth in poor countries. If the proportion living in poverty had not fallen since 1987 alone a further 215million people would be living in extreme poverty today.
India has to concentrate on five important areas or things to follow to achieve this goal. The areas like technological entrepreneurship, new business openings for small and medium enterprises, importance of quality management, new prospects in rural areas and privatisation of financial institutions. The manufacturing of technology and management of technology are two different significant areas in the country.
There will be new prospects in rural India. The growth of Indian economy very much depends upon rural participation in the global race. After implementing the new economic policy the role of villages got its own significance because of its unique outlook and branding methods. For example food processing and packaging are the one of the area where new entrepreneurs can enter into a big way. It may be organised in a collective way with the help of co-operatives to meet the global demand.
Understanding the current status of globalisation is necessary for setting course for future. For all nations to reap the full benefits of globalisation it is essential to create a level playing field. President Bush’s recent proposal to eliminate all tariffs on all manufactured goods by 2015 will do it. In fact it may exacerbate the prevalent inequalities. According to this proposal, tariffs of 5% or less on all manufactured goods will be eliminated by 2005 and higher than 5% will be lowered to 8%. Starting 2010 the 8% tariffs will be lowered each year until they are eliminated by 2015.
GDP Growth rate:
The Indian economy is passing through a difficult phase caused by several unfavourable domestic and external developments; Domestic output and Demand conditions were adversely affected by poor performance in agriculture in the past two years. The global economy experienced an overall deceleration and recorded an output growth of 2.4% during the past year growth in real GDP in 2001-02 was 5.4% as per the Economic Survey in 2000-01. The performance in the first quarter of the financial year is5.8% and second quarter is 6.1%.
Export and Import:
India’s Export and Import in the year 2001-02 was to the extent of 32,572 and 38,362 million respectively. Many Indian companies have started becoming respectable players in the International scene. Agriculture exports account for about 13 to 18% of total annual of annual export of the country. In 2000-01 Agricultural products valued at more than US $ 6million were exported from the country 23% of which was contributed by the marine products alone. Marine products in recent years have emerged as the single largest contributor to the total agricultural export from the country accounting for over one fifth of the total agricultural exports. Cereals (mostly basmati rice and non-basmati rice), oil seeds, tea and coffee are the other prominent products each of which accounts fro nearly 5 to 10% of the countries total agricultural exports.
Where does Indian stand in terms of Global Integration?
India clearly lags in globalisation. Number of countries have a clear lead among them China, large part of east and far east Asia and eastern Europe. Lets look at a few indicators how much we lag.
· Over the past decade FDI flows into India have averaged around 0.5% of GDP against 5% for China 5.5% for Brazil. Whereas FDI inflows into China now exceeds US $ 50 billion annually. It is only US $ 4billion in the case of India
· Consider global trade – India’s share of world merchandise exports increased from .05% to .07% over the pat 20 years. Over the same period China’s share has tripled to almost 4%.
· India’s share of global trade is similar to that of the Philippines an economy 6 times smaller according to IMF estimates. India under trades by 70-80% given its size, proximity to markets and labour cost advantages.
· It is interesting to note the remark made last year by Mr. Bimal Jalan, Governor of RBI. Despite all the talk, we are now where ever close being globalised in terms of any commonly used indicator of globalisation. In fact we are one of the least globalised among the major countries – however we look at it.
· As Amartya Sen and many other have pointed out that India, as a geographical, politico-cultural entity has been interacting with the outside world throughout history and still continues to do so. It has to adapt, assimilate and contribute. This goes without saying even as we move into what is called a globalised world which is distinguished from previous eras from by faster travel and communication, greater trade linkages, denting of political and economic sovereignty and greater acceptance of democracy as a way of life.
Consequences:
The implications of globalisation for a national economy are many. Globalisation has intensified interdependence and competition between economies in the world market. This is reflected in Interdependence in regard to trading in goods and services and in movement of capital. As a result domestic economic developments are not determined entirely by domestic policies and market conditions. Rather, they are influenced by both domestic and international policies and economic conditions. It is thus clear that a globalising economy, while formulating and evaluating its domestic policy cannot afford to ignore the possible actions and reactions of policies and developments in the rest of the world. This constrained the policy option available to the government which implies loss of policy autonomy to some extent, in decision-making at the national level.

104th amendment to constitution

The politics of reservation in education

It is the yummiest cake all politicians � irrespective of political stripes -- want a big pie of.
The Indian Parliament has passed the 104th Constitution Amendment Bill, providing reservations for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the Scheduled Classes and Scheduled Tribes, in all private aided and unaided educational institutions.
The amendment is the government's attempt to offset the effect of the recent Supreme Court judgement that categorically said that in an unaided (which runs without government funding) educational institution -- whether run by non-minorities or minorities -- the government cannot implement its policy of reservation.
"This amendment is nothing short of a revolution because good education is every Indian family's dream," Indira Jaising, eminent Constitution expert, told rediff.com
"For the first time, unaided private institutions -- where better education is provided -- are now under the purview of the State. Private education institutions that are accruing huge profits and no responsibilities felt no obligation to Dalits. This is no longer the case," Jaisingh added.
The political mileage resulting from the move, which directly benefits more than 70 per cent of voters, is so huge that of the 381 members present in the Lok Sabha, 379 voted in favour of it.
The important amendment is an attempt by Congress to re-establish its lost credentials among tribals, Dalits and Other Backward Classes who have moved away from it since the emergence of regional parties and the Bharatiya Janata Party.
Column: The 104th Amendment Bill is dangerous
The trouble is, as analyst Amulya Ganguli put it, when a political party eyes a vote bank, it forgets that others too are on the prowl.
The BJP can't stomach the huge chunk of the vote bank going Congress' way. It somewhat convincingly asked why minority-managed -- meaning Christian and Muslim -- institutions are not included in the amendment.
The BJP wants substantial reservation for socially and educationally backward castes in these institutions also. Minority institutions have staunchly resisted the move.
Although Article 30 of the Indian Constitution gives the right to minorities to establish and administer educational institutions, in practice they have become highly commercialised where poor or backward students can't even dream of getting education.
For example, in Andhra Pradesh alone 9,000 engineering seats in minority colleges were not filled up because they could not find students rich enough to pay for them.
The Bill is certainly going to upset upper-caste Hindus because it will shrink seats in the general category.
The BJP tried to capitalise on both these classes' sentiments by unsuccessfully moving an amendment to the Bill to get Muslim and Christian education institutions under the purview of the Bill. But the BJP move only got 110 votes out of the 382 members who voted.
The BJP's Ananth Kumar argued in Parliament that, 'I do not know why the UPA [United Progressive Alliance] government has not given this provision of reservation to the minority institutions. This Constitutional Amendment is an eyewash.
'After passing this lopsided Constitution (Amendment) Bill there would be no medical colleges, no engineering colleges, no IT institutions, no law institutions in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009 in the name of non-minority institutions,' he argued.
Column: Time for reservation in minority institutions
'The UPA government is doing a draconian social injustice and creating a minority private institutions bazaar in the country. Education should not be nationalised and education should also be in the private domain.'
In reality, the minority-run institutions have not been above board.
During the debate, politicians cited an example that in Mumbai, more than 70 per cent of the majority-run institutions claim a minority status.
BJP leader Bal Apte argued in the Rajya Sabha that, 'The main problem is not of religious minorities, but of linguistic minorities. They hardly have the presence of their community in a particular region, but because their language is different, they establish an institution and claim a minority status and that really gives them an opportunity to earn money.'
All over India, minorities do run a few exceptionally dedicated institutions, helping the poor and bringing social justice, but most of them are profit-making machines. The cries to include minority institutions are raised loudly because the private institutions are better managed than the government-owned institutions.
In Karnataka, at least four government colleges do not have even 60 per cent of the required staff.
Nearly Rs 450 billion is spent for professional courses, including medical, dental and engineering, in India.
The hidden question is whether education is a business, trade or a national mission and an instrument to bring social justice.
According to R L Jalappa of the Congress, "Around 85,000 seats were vacant in the engineering stream during the year 2003-04 in India. In my state alone, 400 seats in dental colleges were not filled up. It was very difficult for us to fill up the seats in the dental as well as for the MBBS courses. Now, the government is proposing to bring about reservation. Who will foot the bill for the tuition fees?"
The political issue of reservation in educational institution is so important, fundamental and explosive that every time it comes up for debate politicians get into their act.
While passing the law, politicians asked for more by arguing why there is a need to have reservations in the judiciary and the bureaucracy. Out of about 100 secretary-level officers, not even one is a Scheduled Caste, they complained.
There are approximately 16 to 20 million Dalit Christians who have been denied reservation. Already, a powerful section of the government, including Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Congress chief Sonia Gandhi, are contemplating reservation in jobs in the private sector.
Many MPs cutting across party lines argued that there should be reservation for the economically backward. One MP said, "A person who migrates from one state to another should be provided reservation in that state also."
Like it happens in the case of most issues, opinions got vertically divided when the House passed the bill. It is now being argued that a new kind of reservation will pit Muslims and Christians against Dalits and tribals.
Dr Udit Raj, chairman, All India Confederation of SC/ST Organisations, says, "I am happy that the Bill has been passed but we wanted to include the minority institutions. But the Congress is indulging in appeasement of minorities. There is a truth that the Congress party appeases minorities more than it really gives them something."
Maneka Gandhi, MP from Uttar Pradesh, said, 'The government is manufacturing fertile ground to sow, nurture and harvest the evils of separatism, keep people divided on religious grounds. The present attempt is not only short-sighted but antithetical to any hopes of narrowing India's religious divisions.
'By keeping religious segregations alive, the government is going against the very purpose of the inception of these institutions,' she added.
Human Resource Development Minister Arjun Singh, who moved the Bill, could not hide his glee when he replied to the BJP on why minority institutions cannot be included.
'Minority rights, as specified in Article 30, should, in all circumstances, be protected. This Article has a great historical necessity. Therefore, it cannot be deleted,' he said.
'In the light of the trauma of Partition, Article 30 was put into our Constitution as a Fundamental Right because this country, this republic, gave the assurances to these people that they will not be discriminated against and that they will be protected, and, therefore, it was better for them to stay where they were.

Important Constitutional Amendments

Important Constitutional Amendments
1
First Amendment 1951
Added Ninth Schedule.
2
Seventh Amendment 1956
Necessitated on account of reorganisation of States on a linguistic basis
3
Eighth Amendment 1959
Extended special provisions for reservations of seats for SCs, STs and Anglo-Indian in Lok Sabha and Leg. Assemblies for a period of 10 years from1960 to 1970.
4
The Ninth Amendment 1960
Gave effect to transfer certain territories to Pakistan following the 1958 Indo-Pak agreement.
5
The Tenth Amendment 1961
Incorporated Dadra & Nagar Haveli as a UT.
6
Twelfth Amendment 1962
Incorporated Goa, Daman & Diu as a UT.
7
Thirteenth Amendment 1962
Created Nagaland as a State.
8
Fourteenth Amendment 1963
Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam, the former French territories were included in the I schedules as UT of Pondicherry.
9
Eighteenth Amendment 1966
Reorganised Punjab into Punjab, Haryana and UT of Chandigarh.
10
Twenty first Amendment 1967
Included Sindhi as the Fifteenth Regional language.
11
Twenty second Amendment 1969
Created a sub-state of Meghalaya with in Assam.
12
Twenty third Amendment 1969
Extended the reservation of seats for SC/ST and nomination of Anglo-Indians for a further period of 10 years (till 1980).
13
Twenty sixth Amendment 1971
Abolished the titles and special privileges of former rulers of princely states.
14
Twenty seventh Amendment 1971
Established Manipur and Tripura as States and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh as UTs.
15
Thirty first Amendment 1973
Increased the elective Strength of LS from 525 to 545. The upper limit of representatives of States went up from 500 to 525.
16
Thirty sixth Amendments 1975
Made Sikkim a State
17
Thirty eight Amendment 1975
Provided that the President can make a declaration of emergency, and the promulgation of ordinances by the President, Governors and the Administrative Heads of Uts would be final and could not be challenged in any court. It also authorised the President to declare different kinds of emergencies.
18
Thirty ninth Amendment 1975
Placed beyond challenge in courts, the election to Parliament of a person holding the office of PM or Speaker and election of the President and Prime Minister.
19
Forty fourth Amendment 1978
The Right to Property was deleted from Part III. Article 352 was amended to provide 'Armed Rebellion' as one of the circumstances for declaration of emergency.
20
Forty fifth Amendment 1985
Extended reservation for SC/ST by another 10 years (till 1990)
21
Fifty second Amendment 1985
Added the Tenth Schedule (regarding anti-defection)
22
Fifty third Amendment 1986
Mizoram was made a state
23
Fifty fifth Amendment 1986
Conferred state hood to Arunchal Pradesh
24
Fifty sixth Amendment 1987
Hindi version of the Constitution of India was accepted for all purposes. The UT of Goa, Daman and Diu was divided and Goa was made a State. Daman and Diu remained as a UT.
25
Sixty first Amendment 1989
Reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years for the LS as well as Assemblies
26
Sixty first Amendment 1989
Also extended reservation of seats for SC/ST till 2000 AD.
27
Seventy first Amendment 1992
Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in the VIII Schedule.
28
Seventy third Amendment 1993
(Panchayati Raj Bill) Provided among other things Gram Sabha in Villages, constitution of panchayats at the village and other levels, direct elections to all seats in panchayats and reservations of seats for the SC and ST and fixing of tenure of 5 years for panchayats.
29
Seventy Fourth Amendment 1993
(Nagarpalika Bill) Provides for, among other things, constitution of three types of municipalities, reservation of seats in every municipality for the SC and ST, women and the backward classes.
30
Eighty second Amendment 2000
Reinstaled the provision of reservation of SC and STs in matters related to promotion. Besides, the qualifying marks for passing an examination for them has also been lowered.
31
Eighty fourth Amendment 2001
Extended freeze on Lok Sabha and State Assembly seats till 2026.
32
Eighty sixth Amendment 2002
Makes education a fundamental right for children in the age group of 6 - 14 years.
33
Eighty seventh Amendment 2003
Made the 2001 census the basis for delimitation of constituencies of the Lower House of Parliament (Lok Sabha) and State assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas)
34
Ninety first Amendment 2003
Amended the Anti - Defection Law and also made a provision that the number of ministers in the Central & State Govts. Cannot be more than 15% of the strength of Lok Sabha & respected Vidhan Sabha.
35
Ninety second Amendment 2003
Bodo, Maithili, Santhali and Added into the VIII Schedule.

THE CONSTITUTION (AMENDMENT) ACTS
INCLUDING STATEMENT OF OBJECTS & REASONS (SOR)
1.
The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. Date on which the Act came into
force: 18-6-1951 (Date of Assent)
2.
The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952. Date on which the Act came into
force: 1-5-1953 (Date of Assent).
3.
The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954. Date on which the Act came into
force: 22-2-1955 (Date of Assent).
4.
The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955. Date on which the Act came into
force: 27-4-1955 (Date of Assent).
5.
The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955. Date on which the Act came into
force: 24-12-1955 (Date of Assent).
6.
The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956. Date on which the Act came into
force: 11-9-1956 (Date of Assent).
7.
The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. Date on which the Act came
into force: 1-11-1956 (as per s. 1(2) of the Act).
8.
The Constitution (Eighth Amendment) Act, 1959. Date on which the Act came into
force: 5-1-1960 (Date of Assent).
9.
The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960. Date on which the Act came into
force: 28-12-1960 (Date of Assent).
10.
The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961. Date on which the Act came into
force: 11-8-1961 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act).
11.
The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961. Date on which the Act came
into force: 19-12-1961 (Date of Assent).
12.
The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962. Date on which the Act came
into force: 20-12-1961 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act).
13.
The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962. Date on which the Act came
into force: 1-12-1963 [GSR 1734, dated 30-10-1963].
14.
The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962 Date on which the Act came
into force: 28-12-1962 (Date of Assent).
15.
The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963. Date on which the Act came
into force: 5-10-1963 (Date of Assent).
16.
The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963. Date on which the Act came
into force: 5-10-1963 (Date of Assent).
17.
The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964. Date on which the Act came
into force: 20-6-1964 (Date of Assent).
18.
The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966. Date on which the Act came
into force: 27-8-1966 (Date of Assent).
19.
The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966. Date on which the Act came
into force: 11-12-1966 (Date of Assent).
20.
The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966. Date on which the Act came
into force: 22-12-1966 (Date of Assent).
21.
The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967. Date on which the Act came
into force: 10-4-1967 (Date of Assent).
22.
The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969. Date on which the Act
came into force: 25-9-1969 (Date of Assent).
23.
The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969 Date on which the Act came
into force: 23-1-1970 (Date of Assent).
24.
The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971 Date on which the Act
came into force: 5-11-1971 (Date of Assent).
25.
The Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971. Date on which the Act
came into force: 20-4-1972 (Date of Assent).
26.
The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971. Date on which the Act
came into force: 28-12-1971 (Date of Assent).
27.
The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971. Date on which the Act
came into force:--
(i) Ss. 1 and 3.....30-12-1971 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act).
(ii) Ss. 2, 4 and 5 15-2-1972 [GSR 73(E), dated 14-2-1972].
28.
The Constitution (Twenty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1972. Date on which the Act
came into force: 29-8-1972 [GSR 391(E), dated 29-8-1972].
29.
The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972. Date on which the Act
came into force: 9-6-1972 (Date of Assent).
30.
The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972. Date on which the Act came
into force: 27-2-1973 [GSR 73(E), dated 27-2-1973].
31.
The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973. Date on which the Act came
into force: 17-10-1973 (Date of Assent).
32.
The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973. Date on which the Act
came into force: 1-7-1974 [GSR 297(E), dated 1-7-1974].
33.
The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974. Date on which the Act came
into force: 19-5-1974 (Date of Assent).
34.
The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974. Date on which the Act
came into force: 7-9-1974 (Date of Assent).
35.
The Constitution (Thirty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1974. Date on which the Act came
into force: 1-3-1975 [GSR 61(E), dated 28-2-1975].
36.
The Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1975. Date on which the Act came
into force: 26-4-1975 (As per s. 1 (2)- i.e. date on which the Bill "as passed by
the House of People is passed by the Council of States").
37.
The Constitution (Thirty-seventh) Act, 1975. Date on which the Act came into
force: 3-5-1975 (Date of Assent).
38.
The Constitution (Thirty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1975. Date on which the Act
came into force: 1-8-1975 (Date of Assent).
39.
The Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1975. Date on which the Act came
into force: 10-8-1975 (Date of Assent).
40.
The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976. Date on which the Act came
into force: 27-5-1976 (Date of Assent).
41.
The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976. Date on which the Act came
into force: 7-9-1976 (Date of Assent).
42.
The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976. Date on which the Act came into force:--
(i) Sections 2 to 5, 7 to 17, 20, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 43 to 53, 55, 56, 57 and 59. 3-1-1977
(ii) Sections 6, 23 to 26, 37 to 42, 54 and 58. 1-2-1977
(iii) Section 27 1-4-1977
[GSR 2(E), dated 3-1-1977].
43.
The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977. Date on which the Act came
into force: 13-4-1978 (Date of Assent).
44.
The Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978. Date on which the Act came into force:--
(i) Sections 2, 4 to 16, 22, 23, 25 to 29, 31 to 42, 44 and 45 20-6-1979 [GSR 383(E), dated 19-6-1979].
(ii) Sections 17 to 21 and 30 1-8-1979 [GSR 383(E), dated 19-6-1979].
(iii) Sections 24 and 43 6-9-1979 [GSR 529(E), dated 5-9-1979].
45.
The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980. Date on which the Act came
into force: 25-1-1980 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act).
46.
The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982. Date on which the Act came
into force: 2-2-1983 (Date of Assent).
47.
The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984. Date on which the Act
came into force: 26-8-1984 (Date of Assent).
48.
The Constitution (Forty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1984. Date on which the Act came
came into force: 1-4-1985 (S.O. 184(E), dated 11-3-1985).
49.
The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment)Act, 1984. Date on which the Act came into force: 11-09-1984.
50.
The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984. Date on which the Act came into
force: 11-9-1984 (Date of Assent).
51.
The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984. Date on which the Act came
into force: 16-6-1986 [GSR 871(E), dated 16-6-1986].
52.
The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985. Date on which the Act
came into force: 1-3-1985 [GSR 131(E), dated 1-3-1985].
53.
The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986. Date on which the Act came
into force: 20-2-1987 (S.O. 71 (E), dated 11-2-1987).
54.
The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1986. Date on which the Act came
into force: 1-4-1986 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act).
55.
The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986. Date on which the Act came
into force: 20-2-1987 (S.O. 73(E), dated 11-2-1987).
56.
The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987. Date on which the Act came
into force: 30-5-1987 (S.O. 517(E), dated 26-5-1987).
57.
The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987. Date on which the Act
came into force: 21-9-1987 [GSR 810(E), dated 21-9-1987].
58.
The Constitution (Fifty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1987. Date on which the Act came
into force: 9-12-1987 (Date of Assent).
59.
The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988 Date on which the Act came
into force: 30-3-1988 (Date of Assent).
60.
The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988. Date on which the Act came into
force: 20-12-1988 (Date of Assent).
61.
The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988. Date on which the Act came
into force: 28-3-1989 (Date of Assent).
62.
The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1989. Date on which the Act
came into force: 20-12-1989 (as per s. 1 (2) of the Act, i.e. date on which the
Bill for this Act is introduced in the Council of States).
63.
The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment ) Act, 1989. Date on which the Act came
into force: 6-1-1990 (Date of Assent).
64.
The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment ) Act, 1990. Date on which the Act
came into force: 16-4-1990 (Date of Assent).
65.
The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990. Date on which the Act came
into force: 12-3-1992 (S.O. 204(E), dated 12-3-1992).
66.
The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990. Date on which the Act came
into force: 7-6-1990 (Date of Assent).
67.
The Constitution (Sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1990. Date on which the Act
came into force: 4-10-1990 (Date of Assent).
68.
The Constitution (Sixty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1991. Date on which the Act came
into force: 12-3-1991 (Date of Assent).
69.
The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991. Date on which the Act came
into force: 1-2-1992 (S.O. 96(E), dated 31-1-1992).
70.
The Constitution (Seventieth Amendment) Act, 1992. Date on which the Act came into force:--
(i) S.2........Yet to be notified.
(ii) S.3........21-12-1991 (as per s.1 (2) of the Act).
71.
The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992. Date on which the Act
came into force: 31-8-1992 (Date of Assent).
72.
The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992. Date on which the Act
came into force: 5-12-1992 (S.O. 887(E), dated 5-12-1992).
73.
The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992. Date on which the Act
came into force: 24-4-1993 (S.O. 267(E), dated 24-4-1993).
74.
The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992. Date on which the Act
came into force: 1-6-1993 (S.O. 346(E), dated 1-6-1993).
75.
The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1993. Date on which the Act
came into force: 15-5-1994 (S.O. 372(E), dated 13-5-1994).
76.
The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994. Date on which the Act
came into force: 31-8-1994 (Date of Assent).
77.
The Constitution (Seventy-seventh Amendment) Act, 1995. Date on which the Act
came into force: 17-6-1995 (Date of Assent).
78.
The Constitution (Seventy-eighth Amendment) Act, 1995. Date on which the Act
came into force: 30-8-1995 (Date of Assent).
79.
The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act, 2000. Date on which the Act
came into force: 25-1-2000 ( Date of Assent: 21-1-2000).
80.
The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000 .Date on which the Act came into force: 9-6-2000 (Date of Assent)
81.
The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000. Date on which the Act
came into force: 9-6-2000 (Date of Assent).
82.
The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000.Date on which the Act came into force: 8-9-2000 (Date of Assent)
83.
The Constitution (Eighty-third Amendment) Act, 2000.Date on which the Act came into force: 8-9-2000 (Date of Assent)
84.
The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001.Date on which the Act came into force: 21-02-2002 (Date of Assent)
85
The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2002. Date on which the Act came into force: 4-1-2002 (Date of Assent)
86
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002. Date on which the Act came into force: 12-12-2002 (Date of Assent)
87
The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 22-06-2003 (Date of Assent)
88
The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 15-01-2004 (Date of Assent)
89
The Constitution (Eighty-ninth Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 28-09-2003 (Date of Assent)
90
The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 28-09-2003 (Date of Assent)
91
The Constitution (Ninety-First Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 01-01-2004 (Date of Assent)
92
The Constitution (Ninety-Second Amendment) Act, 2003. Date on which the Act came into force: 07-01-2004 (Date of Assent)
93
The Constitution (Ninety-Third Amendment) Act, 2005. Date on which the Act came into force: 20-01-2006
94
The Constitution (Ninety-fourth Amendment) Act, 2006. Date on which the Act came into force: 12-06-2006

Indian Temples

Ajanta Cave Temple
Location:
Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Built in:
During 2nd century BC - 6th century AD
Dedicated to:
Lord Buddha
Significance:
Listed as World Heritage Site
Attraction:
Cave temples cut out of rocks
How to reach:
One can easily reach Ajanta Cave Temple by taking regular Buses or by hiring Taxis from anywhere in Maharashtra
Ajanta Cave Temple is the marvelous architectural wonder that depicts the rich legacy of India. Acknowledged as the world heritage site, Ajanta Caves are renowned throughout the Globe. Located near Aurangabad, Ajanta Cave Temple can be reached easily from anywhere in Maharashtra by means of regular tourist buses or by hiring taxis. The nearest airport is located at Aurangabad that lies at a distance of 99 kms from the temples. The charisma, of these caves, attracts millions of visitors each and every year. In the early 19th century, the long buried Ajanta Caves were discovered unknowingly by a British Army Officer. At this juncture, the beautiful sculpted caves that were lying deep within the Sahyadri Hills, above the Waghora River, came into the sight. The cave temples are sited in a horse-shoe shaped cliff, where Wagura is flowing at the bottom. Wagura River falls from a height of 200 feet, consequently making a series of waterfalls. The thud of these waterfalls can be easily noticed in the Caves. Depicting BuddhismCut out of rocks, Ajanta Caves trace their origin between 2nd century BC and 6th century AD. Ajanta Cave Temples are dedicated to Lord Buddha. Not less than 30 in number, these caves used to make the lodging of followers and students of Buddhism. During the time of their stay, they adorned the caves with their outstanding architectural skills and artistic paintings. Generally, the carvings and the paintings illustrate the life stories of Lord Buddha. In conjunction with this, numerous styles of human and animal figures are also engraved in the rocks.The pictorial carvings and murals at Ajanta depict the modern society of those times. The artistic sculptures presented every kind of populace from kings to slaves, from men to women, from children to beasts along with flowers plants, fruits and birds. There are some figures that portray the inhabitants like 'Yakshas', 'Kinneras' (half human and half bird), 'Gandharvas' (divine musicians) and 'Apsaras' (heavenly dancers).All the thirty caves are divided into 'Chaitya-Grihas' (stupa halls) and 'Viharas' (dwelling halls). In order to reach each cave, one has to flight of steps that are preserved in their original structure. The Cave 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29 are known as 'Chaitya-Grihas', which were used for the worship of the Lord. The remaining caves are 'Sangharamas' or 'Viharas' that were used for the housing purpose of the followers and students of Buddhism. The caves are numbered as per their present access from the main entrance and were not erected in the same order. From artistic point of view, Cave 1, 2, 16 and 17 are really important and possess remarkable pieces of art that can certainly beat art of the modern world. The walls of these caves are adorned with murals that are maintained to provide the same charm and vibrancy of the bygone era.Wall-PaintingsThe wall paintings of the caves are made with the Tempera technique. This technique involves painting on a dry surface, after the wall is coated with 1 cm thick layer of a mixture made of clay, cow dung and rice husks. The painting is coated with a coat of lime on completion. In those times, the colors used to be natural. Archeological Findings As per the facts revealed by Archeological department, the caves were carved out in two different segments, with a gap of more or less four centuries. The caves made in the first segment, date back to 2nd century BC whereas the caves of the second segment are said to have been made by the Vakatakas and the Guptas. Each cave comprises carvings and paintings representing the incidents of Buddha's life, Bodhisattvas and the Jatakas.
Akshardham Temple Delhi
Location:
Near Nizamuddin Bridge
Built by:
Pramukh Swami Maharaj
Built in:
During 2000-05
Inaugurated by:
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Manmohan Singh
Dedicated to:
Swaminarayan
Attraction:
Largest Temple complex in India
Highlights:
Intricate architecture & various shows
How to reach:
One can reach Akshardham Temple by taking local buses, auto- rickshaws, Metro or by hiring taxis from Delhi
Akshardham Temple is a marvel of architecture that is unfolding the cultural legacy of 10,000 years. The construction of this grand structure took around 5 laborious years. Today, this imposing structure, standing on the banks of serene Yamuna River near Nizamuddin Bridge in Delhi, attracts millions of tourists and devotees to its doorstep. In Nov' 2005, Akshardham Mandir was inaugurated by Dr. Abdul Kalam, the honorable President and Mr. Manmohan Singh, the Prime Minister of India. The term 'Akshardham' is derived from two words 'Akshar' and 'Dham', where 'Akshar' means the eternal and 'dham' means 'abode'. Consequently, Akshardham means the abode of the divine, the eternal. It is actually the abode of eternal values, principles and virtues that are mentioned in the scriptures (Vedas, Puranas) of the Hindu mythology. Within the temple, the 11 feet high gilded image of Bhagwan Swami Narayan appears mesmerizing to the beholder. The image is encircled by the preachers (gurus) of the cult.The meticulous flora, fauna, dancers, musicians and deities drape the complex of Akshardham Temple. The imposing structure was built with the blessings of Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the promoter of BAPS (Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha). This NGO has built majestic and ostentatious temples worldwide, other being Akshardham Temple of Gujarat in India. Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple is the quintessence of the Indian rich legacy, traditions, ancient architecture and everlasting spiritual messages. The grand structure, lush gardens, exhibitions and various other attractions peep into the heritage of India in all its aspects and insights. The temple complex showcases the Indian heritage through various exhibitions like 'Sahajanand Pradarshan', 'Nilkanth Kalyan Yatra',' Sankruti Vihar', 'Yagnapurush Kund' , 'Bharat Upavan' and 'Yogi Hraday Kamal'. Sahajanand Pradarshan'Sahajanand Pradarshan' (Hall of Values) is a hall that displays life-like robotics and dioramas. Through the medium of audio-animatronics, the events from Bhagwan Swaminarayan's life are portrayed. These events leave the message of peace, harmony, modesty, kind service and devotion to God. This hall embraces the world's smallest animatronic robot in the outlook of Ghanshyam Maharaj (the child figure of Bhagwan Swaminarayan). Nilkanth Kalyan Yatra'Nilkanth Kalyan Yatra' is another hall that comprises a giant screen film. This 85' x 65' screen is the first and only large screen of Delhi. The theatre portrays a movie, which is specially designed to show the epic pilgrimage made by an 11 year old child (Bhagwan Swaminarayan) across India. Sanskruti ViharThe third destination is 'Sanskruti Vihar', which involves a boat ride of 10 minutes. This enthralling ride is made through peacock shaped boats that make their way in a non-natural river. This river passes through the world's first university of Takshashila, chemistry laboratories, ancient hospitals, bazaars and Ajanta-Ellora caves. The ride concludes with a message for the future of the World. Yagnapurush Kund / Musical FountainYagnapurush Kund is the fourth destination embracing largest step well of India. This has a huge series of steps that take down to a traditional 'yagna kund'. In the daytime, these steps make a place to relax for the tired visitors, while in the night; these steps make the seats for the audience that come to watch the musical fountain show. Bharat Upavan / Garden of IndiaBharat Upavan encompasses lush manicured lawns with trees and shrubs. Sprawled in the area of sixty acres, the garden is adorned by the bronze statues of contributors to Indian culture, values and national pride.Yogi Hraday KamalYogi Hraday Kamal is a sunken garden that is wrought like a lotus. This magnificent garden features massive stones stamped with quotes from legends of the world. The variety of quotes ranges from Shakespeare, Martin Luther King to Swami Vivekananda and Bhagwan Swaminarayan.ArchitectureSwaminarayan Akshardham has been accredited for being the largest temple complex of India. It is amazing to know that this temple is built wholly in stone as per Sthaapatya Shastra, the architectural science of India. No iron or steel has been used in the construction of this temple. The beams, used for support are 22ft long single piece of stone. The intricately carved pillars appears, as if, whole poetry has been carved in stone. The temple extends to the height of 10 stories, where inch to inch of stone is delicately imprinted and what is more, the fascia appears remarkable. This colossal structure comprises 234 intricately carved pillars, 9 flamboyant domes, 20 quadrangled spires and magnificent a Gajendra Pith. It also boasts of 20,000 idols and statues that depict the great Indian souls in the form of sadhus, devotees, acharyas and divine celebrities. Elevated to the height of 141 feet, the tallest spire of the temple makes the house of the image of Lord Swaminarayan. An enormous amount of 2 million was spent for the erection of this majestic place of worship. The structure swallowed around 6000 tons of pink sand stone that was all brought from Rajasthan. This technique guarantees the fact that the shrine would last for a thousand years. The edifice took not less than 12 million man hours of 11,000 practiced craftsmen to carve every nook and corner. The splendid architecture of this temple provides glimpse of different architectural styles prevalent in India.
Akshardham Temple Gandhinagar
Location:
Sector 20, J Road, Gandhinagar, Gujarat
Built in:
During 1979 -1992
Built by:
Pramukh Swami Maharaj
Dedicated to:
Swaminarayan
Attraction:
One of the largest temple complexes in Gujarat
Highlights:
Intricate architecture & various exhibitions
How to reach:
One can reach Akshardham Temple by taking local buses, auto- Rickshaws or by hiring taxis from Gandhinagar
Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple is an architectural phenomenon that is recounting the cultural heritage of India. Having one of the largest temple complexes in Gujarat, Akshardham is a wonderful shrine located in the heart of Gandhinagar. The magnificent monument is easily accessible by the local means of transport available in the city. Predecessor to Akshardham at Delhi, the temple was constructed by the same organization BAPS (Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha) with the blessings of Pramukh Swami Maharaj. In Nov' 1992, Akshardham Mandir was inaugurated by Pramukh Maharaj himself, the promoter of BAPS. In the present day, Akshardham Temple has become a major and popular attraction amongst the devotees and tourists. Prolific effort of BAPS, Akshardham Temple is a center to encourage art, culture and values of India. Akshardham is an excellent specimen of Indian roots, where art is ageless, culture is borderless and values are changeless. The sanctum sanctorum embraces the seven feet tall, gilded image of Lord Swaminarayan. Hari Mandapam, Prasadi Mandapam and Vibhuti Mandapam are name allotted to the different floors. These floors embrace various sections, where people are engaged in the selfless service to the Lord. The main idea behind these programs is to introduce people with the philosophy of Lord Swaminarayan. The aim of BAPS' is to educate people about the rich spiritual and cultural roots of India. Designed on the lines of Sthapatya Shashtra, Swaminarayan Akshardham is the paradigm of silence and peace. Akshardham presents a perfect blend of devotion, art, architecture, education, exhibitions and research at one venue. In the temple complex, 'Sahajanand', 'Sat-Chit-Anand' and 'Nityanand' are three permanent exhibition halls that are made to enlighten the visitor on spiritual matters. Sahajanand Sahajanand is a mind-blowing exhibition, which depicts the life of Lord Swaminarayan by the means of ingenious settings and shows. The exhibition incorporates a video show of 'travel in time', a cosmos of fiber-optics, a miniature replica of Chhapiya village, a 'Journey through India' and not less than three 'sound-n-light' shows. Sat-Chit-Anand This is another permanent exhibition that has "Integrovision", a fantastic 14-screen multimedia presentation. It elucidates the Vedic philosophy and man's quest for the eternal truth with amazing imagery. Besides the multimedia presentation, the exhibition comprises a 'tunnel of mirrors', glass mosaic and musical fountains that dance on tunes. NityanandFollowing Sat-Chit-Anand, Nityanand is an additional presentation where messages of the Upanishads, Ramayana and Mahabharata are displayed in the course of walk-through dioramas and fiberglass figures. The show comprises an audio-animatronics show, a replica of Hastinapur Palace from the Mahabharata, a blueprint of a pleasant Gurukula, devotional compositions of saint-poets and an explanation on 'Harmony of world religions'. Sahajanand VanSahajanand Van is a contemplative garden where nature looks at its apex. The serene beauty of this garden landscapes the magnificent structure of Akshardham. Festooned with flora and fauna, the garden appears enchanting in the company of spray fountains, herbal gardens, swings, waterfalls and lakes. Sprawled in fifteen acres, Sahajanand Van offers truly a sight to behold. AARSH - Research Center The Akshardham Center for Applied Research in Social Harmony (AARSH) is an innovative research institute that comprises a loaded library, study centers and archives. The center aims at utilizing insight of the past, studying the present trend and arranging possible solutions for the future. Architecture After employing continuous labor for 13 years, the colossal structure took its complete form. The colonnade to this shrine is approximately 1,751 feet (534 meters) in its length. The massive structure extends to 108 feet in height, 240 feet in length and 131 feet in width. Considered as an architectural masterwork, the imposing temple consumed 6,000 tonnes of pink sandstone that was imported from Rajasthan. The intricate carvings boast of the skilled artisans of Bansipahadpur. No steel or iron has been used in the construction of temple to ensure the maximum life of the monument.
Badami Cave Temple
Location:
In Badami, Bagalkot District, Karnataka
Built in:
During 6th and 7th centuries
Dedicated to:
Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and Lord Mahavira
Attraction:
Exquisite carvings and sculptures
How to reach:
One can easily reach Badami Cave Temple by taking regular Buses or by hiring taxis from throughout the state of Karnataka
Badami is truly famous for its Cave Temples that date back to the 6th and 7th centuries. Located at Badami in Bagalkot district of Karnataka, Cave Temples represent the fine architectural style of the ancient times. The nearest airport to Badami is located in Belgaum. Belgaum lies at a distance of 150 kms from Badami and one can easily reach the cave temples by hiring taxis. Various tourist buses and coaches are also available throughout the state of Karnataka. Badami is sited at the orifice of a gorge that is fringed by two rocky hills.ArchitectureBadami is acknowledged for being the ancient kingdom of Chalukyas. In the 6th century, Badami was established by Pulakesin I; however the architectural expansion was observed by the Chalukyas. The sect constructed numerous temples and monuments, marking the instigation of the Hindu architectural style. Badami Cave Temple is the best example of Chalukyan style of architecture. Made out of Sandstone hills, Badami Cave Temples boast of rock-cut architecture.In totality, there are four cave temples in Badami. All these temples enclose brilliant carvings with the sculptures of Gods from the Hindu pantheon. The structure of these temples is a perfect fusion of North Indian Nagara style and South Indian Dravidian style of architecture. Each cave embraces a sanctum, a hall, a verandah and pillars. Beautiful carvings and exquisite sculptures adore the site of Cave Temples. At the cutting edge, one can see a reservoir that makes a perfect foreground to these architectural structures. Caves TemplesThe first and the foremost cave is known to be built in 578 A.D. One can reach the cave by taking a flight of 40 steps. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the cave adorns not less than 81 sculptures of Lord Shiva in the form of 'Nataraj' having 18 arms. Made out in Red sandstone, the cave has an open verandah, a hall with numerous columns and a sanctum. The ceilings and pillars are festooned with paintings of amorous couples. The second cave can be sited at the summit of a sandstone hill. This Cave Temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, the preserver of the Universe as per the Hindu beliefs. Here, Lord Vishnu is presented in the form of a 'Trivikrama' (dwarf) where his one foot is commanding the Earth and with the other he is mastering the sky. Perched on the hill, the third Cave Temple traces its origin in 578 A.D. The front elevation of the cave is approximately 70 ft wide. The platform is carved with the images of 'ganas'. The structure of the temple rejuvenates the memoirs of Deccan style of architecture. This temple is a fine example of the artistic quality and sculptural genius. The sculpture of Lord Vishnu in the company of a serpent captures the major attention. Here, Lord Vishnu is represented in his various incarnations including Narsimha, Varaha, Harihara (Shiva-Vishnu) and Trivikarma. The fourth Cave Temple is accredited for being dedicated to the Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains. The cave is believed to be the latest amongst all the four caves. It finds its origin in the 7th century, near about 100 years after the construction of earlier three caves. In this shrine, one can see the image of Lord Mahavira in a sitting posture. The artistic quality and sculptural grandeur mark the very sight of these cave temples at Badami. The rich traditions of India are depicted through these monuments of heritage. People from all over the World come to visit these shrines of architectural radiance and religious significance.
Akshardham Temple DelhiAkshardham GandhinagarBadami Cave Temple Baijnath TempleBanashankari TempleBankey Bihari TempleBharat Mata TempleBirla Temple DelhiBirla Temple JaipurBrahma Temple PushkarBull TempleChamunda Devi TempleChandi Devi TempleChhatarpur TempleChintaman Ganesh TempleChintpurni TempleDigambar Jain TempleDilwara TempleDwaraka Tirumala TempleDwarkadhish TempleDwarkadhish Temple MathuraEklingji TempleElephanta Cave TempleEllora CavesGangaikondacholapuramGolden Temple AmritsarGuruvayur TempleHampi TempleHoysaleswara TempleIskcon Temple DelhiIskcon Temple BangaloreIskcon Temple VrindavanJagannath TempleJwala Devi TempleKalighat Kali TempleKalka Devi TempleKamakhya TempleKamakshi Amman TempleKarni Mata TempleVishwanath TempleKhajuraho TemplesKheer Bhavani TempleKonark TempleLingaraj TempleLotus TempleMahabodhi TempleMahakaleshwar TempleMahalaxmi TempleMansa Devi TempleMeenakshi TempleMukteswara TempleMumba Devi TempleNaina Devi TempleNasiyan TempleNeelkanth TempleOsian TemplePattadakal TemplesRaghunath TempleRameshwaram TempleRanakpur TempleRanganathaswamy TempleSabarimala TempleSai Baba Temple ShirdiSankat Mochan TempleShankaracharya TempleShakumbhari Devi TempleShore TempleShrinathji TempleSiddhivinayak TempleSomnath TempleSun Temple ModheraTeli Ka MandirTirupati TempleVaishno Devi Temple

Indian Culture

Dresses
The culture, religion, languages spoken and attire of the people of India are as diverse as the landscape of this vast country. Due to its diversity this cultural hub does not have just one dress, which can be called as the National Dress or Indian Dress. If in northern part we find more of the Muslim influence, in the southern part of India Dravidian style of costumes dominate. WOMEN'S WEAR The language, religion and dresses of the people change according to the region they inhabit. In northern part of India Salwar Kameez is prevalent among women. Salwar is a type of loose trouser, which is worn with lose Kurta known as Kameez. This Indian dress is usually accompanied by Dupatta, a kind of veil used to cover head or bosom. This Indian dress is the favorite of North Indian women as it is hassle free to wear and easy to maintain and allows complete freedom of movement which is necessary for hard working women whether in an office or helping her husband in fields. In western India i.e. Rajasthan and Gujarat, Lehenga Choli forms core of the traditional dress of the locals. Lehenga is a lose ankle length skirt worn with Choli, a kind of blouse. This outfit is incomplete without Odhni, western Indian version of Dupatta, which lends the grace and style to this traditional Indian dress. Another dress that resembles Lehenga is Ghaghra. It is a type of full flared ankle length skirt, which is worn with a belt around the waist. In some parts of India you can also find women wearing Garara, a kind of divided skirt, flared at the bottom much like bell-bottoms. Sari, an unstitched piece of cloth which looks common but lends the uncommon grace and elegance to the women wearing it. In ancient times unstitched fabric was supposed to be pure this belief gave rise to this Indian dress in which is there is no problem of size and shape. It is a six to nine yard piece of cloth. Depending upon the needs and cultural and religious norms of the region, each region has its own style of draping a sari. The style of wearing a sari reflects the age, region, religion, status and occupation of the women to some extent. The different styles of draping a sari are:
North Indian: It is the widely used style in which Sari is draped around a waist once and then pleats are tucked in the waistband. The remaining portion of Sari, known as Pallu is put across the left shoulder and is allowed to fall behind.
Gujarati: This style of Sari is known as Seedha Pallu Sari. In this style Pallu is taken to back side and is then put across the front side of the right shoulder.
Bengali: A pleatless style of draping a sari.
Maharashtrian: for this style of sari you need a sari which is longer than the usual one i.e. 8-9 m long. In this style sari is passed through legs and one portion of it is tucked at the back providing room for greater freedom of movement.
Other styles of draping a sari worth mention are: Kodagu, Nivi and Kachha Nivi style. The popularity of sari resulted in its different types. The most famous types of Indian sari are:
Bandhani
Patola
Gujarati brocade
Paithani
Chanderi
Gadawal
Banaras brocade
Kota doria
Kanjeevaram
Konrad
Pashmina silk
Kota silk
Puttapakshi
Baluchari This elegant garment, available in uncountable types and which can be draped in number of styles, suits every Indian occasion. Whether it's a formal office environment or a family get-together it always accentuates the grace of the Indian women. But these days the trends are slightly changing. The traditional Indian dresses are paving the way for the ones with western touch. Nowadays, urban Indian women wear jeans, shirt and trouser and skirts, which is more suitable to her working lifestyle. MEN'S SECTION Dhoti and Kurta is supposed to be the native Indian dress for men. Dhoti is a piece of cloth, which is tied at the waist, and one part of it is passed between the legs and is tucked at the back, whereas Kurta is a type of an Indian tunic. In Southern India, men mostly wear Shirt and Lungi. Lungi is also a type of dhoti, worn differently. It is tied at the waist and hung lose at the legs. These days due to the changing occupational demands Indian men are opting for the dresses such as trousers, jeans and shirts etc. HEADGEAR The cap and dupatta are the main headgears used by Indian men and women respectively. Muslim men use a special type of cap known as 'Topi' to cover their heads whereas turban, locally known as 'Pagadi' in Punjab, is an integral part of a Sikh men.
Indian Art
Indian subcontinent has always been the reservoir of talent, be it in the field of art, science, literature, or any other field. However, special emphasis should be given to the famous Indian art and its various forms. The art work of this country, be it paintings or sculptures or even traditional arts like Rangoli, has always gathered appreciation from people residing in almost all the parts of the world. In this section, we will acquaint you with popular Indian art works. Indian PaintersIndian subcontinent is famous for being the home country of a large number of exceptionally brilliant artists, including painters, writers, singers, etc. The art of painting in India dates back to the ancient times, as is evident from the cave paintings of Ajanta and Ellora. Many painters of India have received global recognition also and their paintings have fetched millions of dollars in international auctions. Indian PaintingsThe tradition of painting has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent since the ancient times. Standing as a testimony to this fact are the exquisite murals of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhist palm leaf manuscripts, Mughal and Kangra schools of miniature Indian paintings, etc. Infact, records have been found that indicate the usage of paintings for decorating the doorways, guest rooms, etc. RangoliRangoli, one of the most beautiful and most pleasing art forms of India, is comprised of two words, 'rang' meaning 'color' and 'aavalli' meaning colored creepers' or 'row of colors'. Rangoli basically comprises of the art of making designs or patterns on the walls or the floor of the house, using finely ground white powder along with different colors.
Indian Architecture
One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across history. Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of extensive town planning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back to the advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta. With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school of architecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers were the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola, Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job in the field of architecture. The temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architectural excellence of the South Indian rulers. In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This was called as the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers built a magnificent temple complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim rulers, there developed a new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture. It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings.
Indian Crafts
The history of Indian handicrafts goes back to almost 5000 years from now. There are numerous examples of handicrafts from the Indus Valley Civilization. The tradition of crafts in India has grown around religious values, needs of the common people and also the needs of the ruling elites. In addition to this foreign and domestic trade have also played an important role in the evolution of different craft forms in India. The craft traditions of India have withstood the depredation of time and several foreign invasions and continue to flourish till date. It is mainly due to the open mindedness of the Indian handicraftsmen to accept and assimilate new ideas. Going back to the Indus valley civilization we find a rich craft tradition and a high degree of technical excellence in the field of pottery, sculpture (metal, stone and terracotta), jewelry, weaving etc. The Harappan craftsmen not only catered to all the local needs but traded with the outside world via sea routes. In the Vedic age (1500 B.C.), we find numerous references in the Vedas of artisans involved in pottery making, weaving, wood craft etc. The Rig Veda refers to a variety of pottery made from clay, wood and metal. There is a reference to weavers and weaving. In the Mauryan age we find great development in the field of sculpture. In this period more than 84,000 stupas are said to be built in India, including the famous Sanchi Stupa, which has beautiful stone carving and relief work done on it. Numerous sculptures from Bharhut, Mathura, Amravati, Vaishali, Sanchi etc show female figures adorned with a display of jewelry, which continues to inspire contemporary jewelry making. The period between 1st century B.C. and 1st century A.D. was a period of political confusion as a result of foreign invasions. The impact of this turmoil is visible in the amazing Buddhist sculptures from Taxila, Begram, Bamiyan, Swat valley etc. During the Kushana period Jewelry, sculpture, textile making, leather products, metal working etc. were the main handicrafts that assimilated foreign influences and used them in accordance with the Indian setting. The Gupta age saw rapid advancement in the field of handicrafts and art forms. The murals at Ajanta and Ellora bear testimony to it. The Medieval period the handicraftsmen flourished in the field of pottery, weaving, wood carving, metal working, jewelry etc. The contribution of the Cholas and the Vijaynagar Empire in the field of bronze sculpture, silk weaving, jewelry, temple carving is simply unparalleled. The Mughal period was the golden period in the history of Indian art, craft and culture. The Mughals brought with them a rich heritage. The Mughals introduced methods like inlay work, glass engraving, carpet weaving, brocades, enameling etc.
Indian Cinema
India has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world. It was in early 1913 that an Indian film received a public screening. The film was Raja Harischandra. Its director, Dadasaheb Phalke is now remembered through a life-time achievement award bestowed by the film industry in his name. At that point of time it was really hard to arrange somebody to portray the role of females. Among the middle classes, that association of acting with the loss of virtue, female modesty, and respectability has only recently been put into question. While a number of other film-makers, working in several Indian languages, pioneered the growth and development of Indian cinema, the studio system began to emerge in the early 1930s. Its most successful early film was Devdas (1935), whose director, P.C. Barua also appeared in the lead role. The Prabhat Film Company, established by V. G. Damle, Shantaram, S. Fatehlal, and two other men in 1929, also achieved its first success around this time. Damle and Fatehlal's Sant Tukaram (1936), made in Marathi was the first Indian film to gain international recognition. The social films of V. Shantaram, more than anything else, paved the way for an entire set of directors who took it upon themselves to interrogate not only the institutions of marriage, dowry, and widowhood, but the grave inequities created by caste and class distinctions. Some of the social problems received their most unequivocal expression in Achhut Kanya ("Untouchable Girl", 1936), a film directed by Himanshu Rai of Bombay Talkies. The film portrays the travails of a Harijan girl, played by Devika Rani, and a Brahmin boy, played by Ashok Kumar. The next noteworthy phase of Hindi cinema is associated with personalities such as Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, and Guru Dutt. The son of Prithviraj Kapoor, Raj Kapoor created some of the most admired and memorable films in Hindi cinema. Awaara (The Vagabond, 1951), Shri 420 (1955), and Jagte Raho (1957) were both commercial and critical successes. Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zamin, which shows the influence of Italian neo-realism, explored the hard life of the rural peasantry under the harshest conditions. In the meantime, the Hindi cinema had seen the rise of its first acknowledged genius, Guru Dutt, whose films critiqued the conventions of society and deplored the conditions which induce artists to relinquish their inspiration. From Barua's Devdas (1935) to Guru Dutt's Sahib, Bibi aur Gulam,the motif of "predestined love" looms large: to many opponents, a mawkish sentimentality characterizes even the best of the Hindi cinema before the arrival of the new or alternative Indian cinema in the 1970s. It is without doubt that under the influence of the Bengali film-makers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal Sen, the Indian cinema, not only in Hindi, also began to take a somewhat different turn in the 1970s against the tide of commercial cinema, characterized by song-and-dance routines, insignificant plots, and family dramas. Ghatak went on to serve as Director of the Film and Television School at Pune, from where the first generation of a new breed of Indian film-makers and actors - Naseeruddin Shah, Shabana Azmi, Smita Patil, and Om Puri among the latter was to emerge. These film-makers, such as Shyam Benegal, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, and Saeed Mirza, exhibited a different aesthetic and political sensibility and were inclined to explore the caste and class contradictions of Indian society, the nature of oppression suffered by women, the dislocations created by industrialism and the migration from rural to urban areas, the problem of landlessness, the impotency of ordinary democratic and constitutional procedures of redress, and so on. The well-liked Hindi cinema is characterized by important changes too numerous to receive more than the slightest mention. The song-and-dance routine is now more systematized, more regular in its patterns; the 'other', whether in the shape of the terrorist or the unalterable villain, has a more gloomy presence; the nation-state is more fixated in its demands on our loyalties and curtsy; the Indian Diaspora is a larger presence in the Indian imagination and so on. These are only some considerations: anyone wishing to discover the world of Indian cinema should also replicate on its presence in Indian spaces, its relation to vernacular art forms and mass art. The Indian film industry, famously known as Bollywood, is the largest in the world, and has major film studios in Mumbai (Bombay), Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore and Hyderabad. Between them, they turn out more than 1000 films a year to hugely appreciative audiences around the world. For nearly 50 years, the Indian cinema has been the central form of entertainment in India, and with its increased visibility and success abroad, it won't be long until the Indian film industry will be well thought-out to be its western counterpart- Hollywood. Mainstream commercial releases, however, continue to dominate the market, and not only in India, but wherever Indian cinema has a large following, whether in much of the British Caribbean, Fiji, East and South Africa, the U.K., United States, Canada, or the Middle East.
Dances of India
India is a land of diversities. Various climatic conditions have made India a diverse country. In all spheres of Indian life diversities are clearly visible. These diversities have made the Indian culture a unique one. Like all other aspects of life, the dance forms of India are also varied and different. There are many types of dance forms in India, from those which are deeply religious in content to those which are performed on small occasions. The Indian dances are broadly divided into Classical dances and folk dances. The Classical dances of India are usually spiritual in content. Though the folk dances of India are also spiritual and religious in content but the main force behind the folk dances of India is the celebratory mood. Dances are a form of coherent expression of human feelings. Like the Indian culture, Indian classical dances are equally diverse in nature. There are numerous classical dance forms in India and innumerable folk dances. Each dance form can be traced to different parts of the country. Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particular region or a group of people The most popular classical dance styles of India are Bharatnatyam of Tamil Nadu, Kathakali and Mohiniattam of Kerala, Odissi of Orissa, Kathak of Uttar Pradesh, Kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh and Manipuri of Manipur.
Indian Forts
Of all the Indian monuments, forts and palaces are most fascinating. Most of the Indian forts were built as a defense mechanism to keep the enemy away. The state of Rajasthan is home to numerous forts and palaces. Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are also not far behind. In fact, whole India is dotted with forts of varied sizes. The magnificent forts and palaces of Rajasthan were built during the medieval period. The notable feature about each of the forts and palaces is the exquisite carving work that has survived till date and still receives appreciation from people worldwide. These magnificent forts can not be described in words as they will look too small in front of splendor of forts that beautify India. Some prominent forts of Rajasthan are Amber fort, Chittorgarh fort, Jaisalmer fort, Lohagarh fort, Bikaner fort and Jaigarh fort. Delhi, the capital of India also boasts of some great forts. Some of the notable forts of Delhi are the Red fort, Purana Quila and the Tughlaqabad fort. These grand forts clearly depict the glory of Indian majestic past. There are many other forts of importance in India. Some of the most notable are the Red fort, Agra, the Gwalior fort and the Junagarh fort.
Indian Folktales
The folklores and folktales have been an eternal part of every culture since ages. When it comes to Indian folk tales, the country of diverse religions, languages and cultures has a complete range of tales and short stories. Indian folklore has a wide range of stories and mythological legends, which emerge from all walks of life. The interesting stories range from the remarkable ‘Panchatantra’ to ‘Hitopadesha’, from ‘Jataka’ to ‘Akbar-Birbal’. Not only this, the great Indian epics like ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’ and ‘Bhagvad Gita’ are full of didactic stories inspired from the lives of great souls. Being full of moralistic values, Indian folklore makes perfect stories for children, who are required to be, instilled with right values. All these ancient stories have been passed from generation to generation, creating bondage of traditional values with present-day generation.Hitopadesha TalesThe Hitopadesha is a remarkable compilation of short stories. Composed by Narayana Pandit, Hitopadesha had its origin around a thousand years ago. In Indian Literature, the Hitopadesha is regarded more or less similar to the Panchatantra. In the vein of Panchatantra, the Hitopadesa was also written in Sanskrit and following the pattern of prose and verse. Hitopadesh tales are written in reader-friendly way, which also contributed to the success of this best seller after ‘Bhagwad Gita’ in India. Since its origin, Hitopadesa has been translated into numerous languages to benefit the readers all over the world. Jataka TalesIn 300 B.C, the Jataka Tales were written for the mankind to gain knowledge and morality. Ever since, Jataka tales have become story books that are both enjoyable as well as knowledgeable. Originally written in Pali language, Jataka Buddhist tales have been translated in different languages around the world. The luminous fables of ‘Jataka’ are intended to impart values of self-sacrifice, morality, honesty and other informative values to people. Panchatantra TalesThe Panchatantra is a legendary collection of short stories from India. Originally composed in the 2nd century B.C, Panchatantra is believed to be written by Vishnu Sharma along with many other scholars. The purpose behind the composition was to implant moral values and governing skills in the young sons of the king. The ancient Sanskrit text boasts of various animal stories in verse and prose. During all these centuries, many authors and publishers worked hard to make these fables accessible and readable by a layman. The grand assortment has extraordinary tales that are liked, perhaps even loved by people of every age group.

Indian Pilgrimage
India is a vast country, with diverse cultures and ancient civilization. There are a number of religious groups residing in India. In India we find the oldest pilgrimage tradition in the whole world. The practice of pilgrimage in India is so deeply embedded in the cultural psyche and the number of pilgrimage sites is so large that the entire subcontinent may actually be regarded as one grand and continuous sacred place. The earliest sources of information on the matter of sacred space come from the Rig Veda and the Atharva Veda. Following the Vedic period the practice of pilgrimage seems to have become quite common, as is evident from sections of the great epic, the Mahabharata (350 BC), which mentions more than 300 sacred sites spanning the sub-continent. By the time of the Puranas, the number of sacred sites had grown considerably, reflecting both the ongoing assimilation of aboriginal sacred places and the increased importance of pilgrimage as a customary religious practice. Hindus call the sacred places tirthas and the action of going on a pilgrimage is called tirtha-yatra. The word tirtha means river ford, steps to a river, or place of pilgrimage. In Vedic times the word may have concerned only those sacred places associated with water, but by the time of the Mahabharata, tirtha had come to denote any holy place, be it a lake, mountain, forest, or cave. Tirthas are more than physical locations, however. Pious Hindus believe them to be spiritual fords, the meeting place of heaven and earth, the locations where one crosses the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth to reach the shore of liberation.

Indian Religions
India is a land of diversities. This diversity is also visible in the spheres of religion. The major religions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith. India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony is seen in the celebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all the religions and cultures of India. Whether it's the gathering of the faithful, bowing in prayer in the courtyard of a mosque, or the gathering of lamps that light up houses at Diwali, the good cheer of Christmas or the brotherhood of Baisakhi, the religions of India are celebrations of shared emotion that bring people together. People from the different religions and cultures of India, unite in a common chord of brotherhood and amity in this fascinating and diverse land.
Indian Monuments
With their elaborate superfluities and wonderful architecture, Indian monuments represent one of the most outstanding facets of the multi-faceted Indian culture. An architectural feat in itself, each Indian monument is a remarkably splendid sample of unbelievable artistry, covering a sense of mystery, deception and romance. Be it the marvel in white marble, the spellbinding Taj Mahal; or the red stone splendor, the magnificent Red Fort; or the magnificence of temple art of Khajuraho, Konark and Hampi , there is evident the master craftsmanship and elegance, that brings to the forefront the splendor of the bygone era. Monuments are witnesses of India's past; the monuments of India are also the guardian pillars of India's cultural heritage. The monuments of India have become an inspiration for the future generations.
Temples in India
India is the land of spiritual bliss, splashed by the waters of holy rivers. The rich cultural heritage of India owes to the glory of its historical past. It is the land inhabited by the Lords themselves, leaving behind their imprints and the sense of their divine presence, hanging in the environment for eternity. These places are marked by a number of holy temples, which were constructed by the great kings, who ruled India. Some of these Indian temples are known for their architectural magnificence and sculptural splendor, the world wide over. Strong mythological believes have rendered these places as the religious hubs of the country. People from all over the world visit these temples, in order to take a dip in the ocean of spirituality. Meenakshi Temple, Dilwara Temples, ISKCON Temple, Akshardham Temples, Lotus Temple, Tirupati Temple etc. are the names of some of the famous temples of India. Apart from this, there are a number of fairs and festivals organized in the vicinity of these temples which are attended by the devotees in huge numbers.